1941-1945

1941
1941 Lend-Lease Passed- With the war going badly for the British, it was clear that Great Britain would require assistance from the United States. The British were running out of money to pay for the arms they were buying. President Roosevelt, therefore, went before the country in a "Fireside Chat," in which he called for America to become an "arsenal of Democracy."

Roosevelt then introduced a bill to Congress on January 8, 1941, providing the President with the power to lend military equipment to countries that the President believed were in need.
The bill passed the House 260 to 165, and the Senate 60 to 31, with votes split primarily on party lines.

By the end of the war the United States had provided the following aid:

Great Britain...................$31 billion
Soviet Union...................$11 billion
France...............................$ 3 billion
China...............................$1.5 billion
Other European..........$ 500 million
South America.............$400 million

The amount totaled: $48,601,365,000.
1941 Battle Of Matapan - The British fleet met the Italian fleet at the battle off of Cape Matapan. The Italian Force was led by Vice Admiral Angelo Iachino, the British force was led by Admiral Cunningham. The British force included the battleships Warspite, Valiant and Barham. It also included the carrier Formidable. Cunnigham cruisers engaged part of the Italian force on March 28. In the meantime, Cunningham's main force was closing. When the British aircraft attacked, the Italians changed course and began to withdraw. Cunningham then launched successive air attacks against the Italian fleet. The Vittorio Veneto was hit and forced to slow down, but was soon making 20 knots. The cruiser Pola was seriously damaged, and two other cruisers and four destroyers were detached to escort the Pola. Cunningham's main force of battleships then struck the Italian cruiser in the middle of the night. Within three minutes, the Italian cruisers Zara and Fiume were sunk. The destroyers Affieri and Carducci soon followed. Finally, the partially disabled cruiser Pola was boarded and captured. It was the greatest British naval victory since Trafalgar.
1941 German Forces Invade Greece and Yugoslavia -The Germans invaded Yugoslavia, after a coup in Belgrade that overthrew the pro-German government and replaced it with one committed to neutrality. At the same time, the Germans invaded Greece. German troops reached Athens by April 27. Britain was able to send 48,000 of the 60,000 members of its expeditionary force to Greece.
1941 Germans Attack Crete - German paratroopers invaded Crete and were able to rout British forces on the island.
1941 German Battleship "Bismark" Sunk - The German battleship "Bismark" was sunk by the British Navy. In the first round of the fight, the British lost the battleship "Hood" and suffered the crippling of the battleship "Prince of Wales." A second British task force caught up with the "Bismark." On May 26, a plane from the "Ark Royal" attacked the "Bismark." A torpedo hit its rudder and disabled the steering. That night, battleships "Rodney" and "King George" attacked the "Bismark" with their big guns. Together with torpedos from the "Dorsetshire," they sank the "Bismark."
1941 German Forces Invade Russia -German forces invaded Russia. The Germans advanced on a 2,000 mile-long front. Together with their allies, they were able to mass 3 million troops. Initially, the Russians had 2 million troops. German troops advanced along the whole front. By September, they began laying seige to Lenningrad, and then captured Kiev. By the end of October, the Germans had reached Crimea in the south and Moscow's suburbs in the north.
1941 Atlantic Charter-President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill spent three days meeting together on board their ships at Argentina Bay, Newfoundland. The two leaders developed a close personal friendship, probably the closest between a President and any foreign leader up to that time.

While the President was meeting with Churchill, the American military staff, led by George Marshall, was meeting with the British military, discussing aid, as well as joint actions that could be taken.
1941 Penicillin Used To Treat a Human -(2/12/41) For the first time, penicillin was used to treat a human patient. Penicillin treated infections, and was widely used during World War II
1941 Pearl Harbor - The American decision to impose sanctions on Japan, in response to the Japanese invasion of Indo-China, convinced Japanese leaders that war with the United States was inevitable.
While the Japanese continued to negotiate in Washington, plans went ahead for military action. The Japanese were convinced that they could not win a war of attrition with the United States, so they planned a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, hoping that a decisive victory would be achieved, which would force the United States to negotiate. The Japanese attack was executed with precision and, despite having broken the Japanese code, the Americans at Pearl Harbor were caught unprepared, and the attack was successful.

1942

1942 Singapore Surrenders - The British fortress at Singapore was forced to surrender to the Japanese. The Japanese advanced down through the Malayan pennisula. They crossed onto the island of Singapore on the night of February 7, and forced the more numerous British troops to surrender.
1942 Java Sea-A series of battles make up what is called the Battle of Java Sea. In the first engagement, on February 4, the US cruiser Marblehead was attacked from the air repeatedly. Though damaged, the Marblehead managed to limp back to the United States. The cruiser Houston was also hit, and had its aft 8 inch guns knocked out.

On February 27, an Allied task force, led by Dutch Rear Admiral Karel Doorman, sailed to attack the enemy east of Baewen. The force included the Dutch flagship De Ruyter, the British cruiser Exeter, the USS Houston, the Australian cruiser Perth and the Dutch cruiser Java.

The battle began at 1616, with Japanese heavy cruisers under the command of Vice-Admiral Takagi Takeo opening fire on the Houston and the Exeter. Following this, the light cruiser Jintsu led a group of destroyers in an attack on British destroyers. Three British destroyers went down.

A general engagement then ensued between the Allied and Japanese cruisers. When it was over, the Dutch cruisers De Rutyer and Java were sunk, and the Perth and Houston were forced to withdraw.

The USS Langley, the first US carrier, had been converted to a seaplane tender. Along with the freighter Seawitch, the Langley sailed to Java with its cargo, planes and pilots. Unfortunately, on February 27, they were spotted by Japanese reconnaissance planes. Land-based Japanese planes then attacked, and the Langley was so damaged it had to be abandoned. The next day, the Houston and Perth attempted to attack Japanese ships unloading at Banten Bay. They sunk four of them, but then were caught by a large force of Japanese warships. Both Allied warships went down. The same day, the Exeter, the last cruiser of the Allied forces in the area, was sunk by Japanese forces in the Sunda Strait.
1942 Doolittle's Bomber Attacks Tokyo - American bombers, under the command of General Doolittle, scored a major psychological victory when they bombed Japan. Only minor damage was inflicted by the forces of medium bombers that were specially modified to be launched from carriers.
1942 Battle of the Coral Sea- The Japanese were advancing toward Australia, with the intention of assaulting Port Moseby. US task forces engaged a Japanese force in the Coral Sea. It was the first battle in which two naval forces engaged without ever coming within shooting distance of each other. Japanese planes managed to sink the American carrier Lexington and damage the Yorktown. The Americans sank a Japanese light-carrier and put two Japanese cruisers out of commission. The Japanese advance was halted.
1942 Philippines Surrender - The Japanese caught the bulk of the American air force assigned to protect the Philippines on the ground, despite the fact that the Japanese attack took place many hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor. On December 22, 1941, 100,000 Japanese troops landed on the island of Luzon. Japanese forces converged on the capital of Manila, forcing the defenders to retreat to the Bataan Peninsula and eventually to the island of Corregidor. There, on May 6, American forces surrendered.
1942 British Launch 1,000 Aircraft Raid on Cologne- The British launched a 1,000-plane night raid on Cologne. This raid was just one of many night raids visited on German cities.
1942 Battle of Midway - The Japanese planned to attack the island of Midway, expanding their hold on the Central Pacific. American intelligence intercepted Japanese plans and knew of the impending Japanese attack. The Americans sent their entire carrier force, including the recently damaged "Yorktown," to intercept the Japanese force. The Americans succeeded in sinking four Japanese carriers, losing only the "Yorktown." This was the turning point in the Pacific War.
1942 Guadalcanal– Savo Island - The first American offensive of the war was the landing on Guadalcanal. The subsequent attempt to hold the island resulted in a number of sea battles with the Japanese. The first was the Battle of Savo Island, on August 9, 1942. The Japanese, led by Admiral Mikawa, sent a task force of five heavy cruisers, two light cruisers and a destroyer to attack the American forces off the island. The
Allies dispatched five heavy cruisers and a destroyer to guard the cruiser. The American forces were divided into two groups, and totally unaware of the approach of the Japanese ships. The battle began when Japanese float planes flying unmolested above the American cruisers released flares. Within moments, Japanese guns had set the HMAS Canberra on fire. Moments later, the USS Chicago was similarly enveloped. Soon the Japanese turned their attention to the northern group, and the Astoria, Quincy and Vincensses were soon out of action and ablaze. Thus, in the worse surface warfare defeat in US Navy history, the Americans and Australians lost five cruisers without inflicting significant casualties on the enemy.
1942 Raid on Dieppe - The Raid on Dieppe took place on August 19, 1942. Its mission was to test German coastal defenses. It was carried out primarily by Canadian troops. The raid turned into one of the greatest Allied fiascoes of the war. The element of surprised was completely lost, and the air force was unable to provide sufficient air support. Of the 4,963 Canadians who took part, 3,367 were killed wounded or taken prisoner.
1942 Guadalcanal– Eastern Solomons - The Japanese decided to launch a major reinforcement of Guadalcanal, and sent three carriers, battleships, numerous cruisers and destroyers to support reinforcements. The American carriers were sent to block the move. On August 24, the Ryujo, an escort carrier which was being used as bait ahead of the main carrier force, was spotted, and the Enterprise and Saratoga launched aircraft to attack it. By the time the main enemy force had been spotted, it was impossible to contact the planes that had been sent to attack the decoy. The aircraft went on to sink the Ryujo.

The main Japanese carrier force then attacked the Enterprise, which was hit, but whose damaged was controlled. Pilots from the Saratoga responded and sank a Japanese seaplane tender.
1942 German Troops Reach Stalingrad - German troops reached the Russian city of Stalingrad, on the Volga, and laid seige to it. German troops advanced on Stalingrad and broke through Russian lines, but did not succeed in taking the city. Hitler would allow no withdrawal from Stalingrad, and the Russian troops gradually wore down the Germans.
1942 Guadalcanal– Cape Esperance - The US force of two heavy and two light cruisers and five destroyers attacked the Tokyo Express in an attempt to reinforce Guadalcanal. In the battle, the US force bested the Japanese one, sinking one destroyer and one cruiser and heavily damaging a second cruiser.
1942 British Are Victorious at El Alamein- German forces, under the command of Rommel, met the British forces, under the command of General Montgomery at El Alamein. Montgomery had a two-to-one advantage in tanks, and was victorious. The victory in El Alamain eliminated the German threat to the Suez Canal and the Middle East.
1942 Guadalcanal– Battle Of Santa Cruz Islands - On October 26, US and Japanese carriers once again exchanged blows. The Enterprise and Hornet's planes successfully disabled the light carrier Zuiho and put the fleet carrier Shokaku out of the war for nine months. However, the carrier Hornet was sunk by Japanese planes.
1942 Operation Torch - The invasion of North Africa, in what was named "Operation Torch," was designed to encircle German troops stationed there. American troops went ashore in French North Africa with limited opposition. Soon after the landings, French troops defected to the American side. American and British troops advanced towards Tunisia, where they met stiff German opposition.
1942 Nuclear Chain Reaction - (12/2/42) For the first time, a nuclear chain reaction was achieved in an atomic pile. The chain reaction occurred at the University of Chicago, under the direction of Enrico Fermi.
1942 Japanese Americans Interned - On February 20, President Roosevelt issued a Presidential order to intern Japanese-American residents of the West Coast. The Japanese-Americans, many born US citizens, were not accused of any crimes; they were simply ordered out of their homes and interned in camps in the desert. A total of 120,000 Japanese-Americans were so treated.

1943

1943 Casablanca Conference - A conference was held in Casablanca, in French Morocco, January 14 - 24, between Roosevelt and Churchill and their respective staffs. At the conference, it was announced that the war would be fought until there was an unconditional surrender. Agreement, in principle, was reached on the opening of a second front.
1943 German Troops Surrender at Stalingrad - The starving German troops at Stalingrad surrendered, after being surrounded since November. Over 90,000 German troops died of starvation or exposure, while close to 100,000 died in battle during the final month. The surrender had been expressly forbidden by Hitler. Field Marshal von Paulus felt he had no choice but to surrender his 100,000 starving troops.
1943 Daylight Bombing of Germany -US forces began daylight bombing of targets in Germany. The first attacks were against German naval targets, but a few days later, the US launched its first air raid against Berlin.
1943 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising - The remaining Jews in the Warsaw ghetto began an armed uprising against the Nazis. The Jews, numbering just 60,000– down from the half a million in the ghetto a year before– knew that those being taken away were going to Auschwitz to be murdered.

The uprising lasted from April 19 to May 16. The Nazis were able to overcome the vastly outnumbered and poorly armed Jewish resistance fighters.
1943 Battle of Kursk- The largest tank battle in history took place at Kursk. The Germans planned a counter-offensive on Soviet positions. Their target was the Kursk salient. Their goal was to cut off the salient and capture the 60 Soviet battalions inside. The Soviets, however, were prepared, and 900 German tanks met 900 Soviet ones. The battle continued throughout the day, and ended in a draw.

The Germans would never be able to amass the number of tanks they had at Kursk, while the Soviets were out-producing them every month.
1943 Allies Land at Palermo -Allied troops, under the command of General Patton, captured the city of Palermo in Sicily. The victory came less than two weeks after Allied forces first landed on Sicily. This marked the first invasion of part of an Axis homeland.
1943 Quebec Conference - British and American leaders met in Quebec to coordinate war plans. At the meetings, which were led by Churchill and Roosevelt, leaders discussed the upcoming landing in Italy, as well as summit plans with Stalin.
1943 Allies Land in Italy -On September 3, the Italian government, led by Marshal Badoglio Mussolini – having been dismissed by King Victor Emanuel – surrendered to the Allied forces. At the same time, the British and Americans began an assault on Italy, now defended by occupying Germans.
1943 Teheran Conferance -The meetings began on November 28. A close working relationship developed between Roosevelt and Stalin. Stalin's first goal at the conference was to commit the British and the Americans to a firm date for the cross-channel invasion. The Allies finally committed to May 1944. Stalin, in return, committed the Soviets to aiding the Allies against Japan once the Nazis were defeated. During the course of the conference, Roosevelt put forth to Stalin for the first time his ideas of a postwar international organization. Stalin agreed in principle. Stalin brought up the proposal to move Poland's border westward, at the expense of Germany. Roosevelt agreed in principle.

1944

1944 US Troops Land at Anzio - American forces landed at Anzio, just south of Naples, in an attempt to out-flank the Germans. German resistance was fierce, and there were fears that the beachhead would not hold. Determined fighting by American forces ultimately secured the beachhead.
1944 Russians Recapture Kerch Peninsula- In April, the Soviets began an attack on the Kerch Peninsula (Crimea). The Germans held the Crimea, even though their military position had become untenable. Within a month, the Soviets had liberated the area.
1944 Russian Troops Cross Polish Border - Advancing Russian troops, led by General Vatutin, crossed the Polish frontier from the Ukraine. The German forces, which were severly depleted, could do little to halt the Soviet advance.
1944 Monte Cassino Falls To Allies- The town of Monte Cassino fell to the allies on May 18. With the fall of Monte Cassino, the whole Gustav Line crumbled, and the road to Rome was open to US and other Allied troops.
1944 Rome Liberated - On June 4, American forces, under the command of General Mark Clark, entered Rome, from which the Nazis were quickly retreating. The capture of Rome marked the first Axis capital captured by Allied forces.
1944 D-Day- On June 6, 1944, 45 Allied divisions, with almost 3 million men led by General Eisenhower, began landing on Normandy Beach in France. Within three weeks, Allied troops had captured all of the Normandy peninsula and port of Cherbourg. By the end of August, Paris was liberated, and Allied forces continued toward Germany.
1944 Battle of The Philippine Seas- Nine Japanese carriers, accompanied by battleships and cruisers, attempted to attack an American force led by 15 carriers, covering the landings in Saipan. The battle became known as the "Marina's Turkey Shoot." The Japanese started the battle with 430 carrier aircraft. When it ended, they had only 35 left. Almost all were shot down, by the American fighters and anti-aircraft guns, while attempting to attack the US force. In addition, two Japanese fleet carriers were sunk by submarines, and one by air attack.
1944 Bretton Woods Conference - The United States was committed to establishing a framework for the post-war world that would ensure economic development and stability. In July 1944, it sponsored the U.N. Monetary and Financial Conference in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire.

Forty-four nations attended the Conference. A plan was agreed upon to establish an International Monetary Fund to help stabilize currencies and promote international trade. The delegates also agreed to the establishment of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, which later came to be known as the World Bank.
1944 Southern France Invaded - Allied forces landed in Southern France. They met limited opposition and were able to quickly capture Toulon and Marseilles.
1944 Paris Liberated - Allied forces, led by the French Second Armored Division commanded by Major General Lecleric, liberated Paris on August 25. The liberation of Paris was hastened by an open rebellion by Parisians against the Nazis in the days leading to the liberation. The next day, US and British forces entered the city and were greeted by quite an emotional welcome.
1944 Market Garden Fails - After liberating Antwerp and Brussels, Belgium, the Allies planned a very ambitious operation to capture the bridges over the Rhine. The plan entailed the landing of paratroopers at Arnhem Bridge. They were to hold the bridge until advancing ground forces could reinforce them. The ground forces failed, however, to make the link up, and the airborne troops at Arnhem were wiped out.
1944 Dumbarton-Oaks Conference - This meeting was attended by representatives of the US, Great Britain, the Soviet Union and China. At the conference, delegates discussed the charter of a new, permanent, post-war international organization. The conference laid the groundwork for the creation of the United Nations.
1944 Battle Of Leyte–Surigao Straits- The last major naval battle of the Pacific took place off Leyte after the American landing there. The Japanese divided their forces into three groups. The first blood was drawn by American submarines Darter and Dace, which sank two Japanese cruisers and reported the positions of the Japanese ships. An air battle ensued, which resulted in the sinking of the light carrier Princeton. The Americans sank the super battleship Musashi.

The last engagement between battleships then began. A Japanese force of two battleships, with cruisers and destroyers, attempted to penetrate the Leyte Gulf through the Surigao Straits. Awaiting them were two forces of destroyers, a force of cruisers and six battleships. In one of the most one-sided victories of the American Navy, the Japanese ships were hit first by the destroyers, then by the cruisers, and then by the battleships, which were all perfectly positioned and mostly equipped with advance fire control radar. The two Japanese battleships were soon sunk, as well as three destroyers. Other than damage to one destroyer, the US force suffered no losses.
1944 Philippines Liberated - On October 20, 1944, American forces began their return to the Philippines by landing on Leyte. In January, they landed on the main island of Luzon. After a bitter battle, they reached the capital, Manila, on February 2. The Japanese lost 170,000 men in the Philippines, compared to American casualties of 8,000.
1944 Battle Of Leyte–Samar - The second stage of the battle occurred when a Japanese force of battleships and cruisers, led by Admiral Kurita, came upon a force of escort carriers of task force Tafy 3, commanded by Rear Admiral AF Sprague, off Samar. The escort carriers were hit repeatedly by the guns of the Japanese force. However, daring attacks by three American destroyers, as well as desperate attacks by all of the carrier planes, succeeded in driving off the superior Japanese force. The Americans lost only the escort carriers Gambier Bay and St Lo. Two destroyers and a destroyer escort that had gallantly attacked the Japanese battleships were also lost. The invasion fleet, however, was safe.

The final act in the battle occurred when US aircraft attacked the Northern Japanese force. Three Japanese carriers were sunk, as well as a cruiser and destroyer. Most of the remaining vessels were heavily damaged.
1944 First B-29 Raids on Japan - The US airforce, flying B-29 bombers -- the most poweful planes of the war -- began strategic bombing raids against Japan. The raids, which grew in size, slowly destroyed all of Japan's industrial capabilities.
1944 Battle of the Bulge - The German forces made a surprise attack against US forces in Belgium. The Germans made rapid progress, but were unable to capture the city of Bastogne, where American forces were encircled. The US and the British were able to counterattack, and the Germans were forced to withdraw, but not before US forces lost 35,000 men.

1945

1945 Auschwitz Liberated- Soviet forces liberated the largest German concentration/death camp, Auschwitz. The Germans had killed 2,500,000 at Auschwitz, the great majority of which were Jews. By April, the full horrow of the Holocaust had become clear when US forces liberated the concentration camps of Bergen-Belsen and Dachau.
1945 Yalta Conference - President Roosevelt, Prime Minister Churchill, and Marshal Stalin, met at Yalta in the Southern Soviet Union. The meeting was a continuation of the earlier dialogue between Churchill and Stalin. In that meeting, Churchill and Stalin had discussed spheres of influence in post-war Europe, and Churchill was reported to have written down a list of countries in which he recorded both nations and percentages. Accordingly, he wrote down: Romania-90%, Soviets-10%, Allied Yugoslavia-50%, Allies-50%.

The meeting began on February 2.

The first order of business was a discussion of when the Soviets would enter the war against the Japanese. The Soviets agreed to enter the war within three months of the end of the war with Germany. The Soviets' political demands included the transfer of the Kurile Islands to the U.S.S.R., recognition of Soviet sovereignty over Outer Mongolia and other concessions. Finally, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to a four-power trusteeship over Korea.

At the conference, Roosevelt agreed that the new borders of Poland would be the Curzon line -- the boundary which had existed at the end of World War I before the Russo-Polish war. In return, the Poles would receive land from Germany, thus moving the border of Poland westward.

One of the most significant issues discussed was the rulership of Poland. It was agreed that the Soviet puppet-regime, called the "Lublin Poles," would initially rule. This agreement called for free and democratic elections in Poland.

The three parties agreed to four-party control of Germany.

The major disagreement over the operations of the United Nations was resolved, with the Soviets agreeing to the American proposal regarding the use of the veto in the Security Council. The Soviets requested that two of their republics receive separate representation in the U.N. The US and the United Kingdom agreed.

The Yalta Conference, to this day, is seen by many as an example of Western appeasment of the Soviets. Others perceive the conference as a reflection of the power of Soviet troops advancing on Germany at the time.
1945 Fire-Bombing of Dresden -The Allied air forces bombed the city of Dresden in repeated waves. The waves resulted in the creation of a fire storm that consumed 11 square miles of the center of the city.
1945 US Forces Land On Iwo Jima - US forces landed on Iwo Jima, 750 miles south of Tokyo. The landings were heavily opposed by the Japanese, who fought to the death. Nevertheless, the US Marines overwhelmed the defenders in a few days.
1945 US Forces Cross Rhine at Remagen- On March 7, US troops reached the Rhine, and found one of the bridges across the Rhine, at Remagen, still standing. As American troops attempted to cross the bridge, the Germans set off a charge, but it failed to destroy the bridge, and soon the Americans were across the Rhine.
1945 San Francisco Conference -On April 25, 1945, the United Nations Founding Conference met in San Francisco. Secretary of State Stettinius headed the US delegation. In order to avoid the problems Wilson encountered with the League of Nations, the US delegations included representatives from both major branches of Congress.

The only purpose of the San Francisco Conference was the establishment of a charter for the new organization. The smaller powers at the conference attempted, unsuccessfully, to have the power of the "big five" limited.
1945 Germany Surrenders - On May 8, German forces officially surrendered. Signing for the Germans was Chief of Staff General Jodl. The surrender ceremony took place at Eisenhower's headquarters at Reims.
1945 Potsdam Conference -The three allies met on July 17, 1945, in Potsdam, Germany. As the conference opened, American President Truman received word of the successful detonation of the atomic bomb.
It was agreed that Germany would initially be governed by the Allied Control Council, made up of military commanders from the four zones of occupation. It was agreed that each of the occupiers would take reparations from their own zones, since the western zones included most of the industrial areas. The Western powers agreed to transfer 10% of the industrial equipment of their zone to the Soviets, and another 15% for food and other raw materials.

The Polish problem could not be solved, however, and the Western powers would not recognize the western borders of Germany.
1945 Japan Surrenders -On September 2, the Japanese formally surrendered aboard the Battleship Missouri in Tokyo Harbor. Two attacks by atomic bombs finally convinced the Japanese government that further resistance was useless.
1945 Atomic Bomb Dropped on Hiroshima -On August 6, the US Airforce dropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. The city was destroyed and over 70,000 were killed immediately from the effects of the blast. Three days later, a second bomb destroyed Nagasaki.